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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Counter-Enlightenment</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Dark_Enlightenment" title="Dark Enlightenment">Dark Enlightenment</a>.</div>

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<p>The <b>Counter-Enlightenment</b> refers to a loose collection of intellectual stances that arose during the <a href="European_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="European Enlightenment">European Enlightenment</a> in opposition to its mainstream attitudes and ideals. The Counter-Enlightenment is generally seen to have continued from the 18th century into the early 19th century, especially with the rise of <a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>. Its thinkers did not necessarily agree to a set of counter-doctrines but instead each challenged specific elements of Enlightenment thinking, such as the belief in <a href="Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>, the <a href="Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> of all humans, <a href="Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, and the increasing <a href="Secularisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Secularisation">secularisation</a> of European society.

</p><p>Scholars differ on who is to be included among the major figures of the Counter-Enlightenment. In Italy, <a href="Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a> criticised the spread of <a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a> and the <a href="Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesian method</a>, which he saw as unimaginative and stifling <a href="Creative_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative thinking">creative thinking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decades later, <a href="Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a> in <a href="Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Sardinia</a> and <a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> in <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> both criticised the anti-religious ideas of the Enlightenment for leading to the <a href="Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> and a <a href="Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> <a href="Police_state" title="Police state">police state</a> following the <a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. The ideas of <a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> and <a href="Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a> were also significant to the rise of the Counter-Enlightenment with <a href="French_Romanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="French Romanticism">French</a> and <a href="German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a> respectively.

</p><p>In the late 20th century, the concept of the Counter-Enlightenment was popularised by pro-Enlightenment historian <a href="Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a tradition of <a href="Relativist" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativist">relativist</a>, <a href="Criticism_of_rationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of rationalism">anti-rationalist</a>, <a href="Vitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitalist">vitalist</a>, and <a href="Organicism" title="Organicism">organic</a> thinkers stemming largely from Hamann and subsequent German Romantics.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Berlin is largely credited with having refined and promoted the concept, the first known use of the term in English occurred in 1949 and there were several earlier uses of it across other European languages,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including by German philosopher <a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Term_usage">Term usage</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_usage">Early usage</h3></div>

<p>Despite criticism of the Enlightenment being a widely discussed topic in twentieth- and twenty-first century thought, the term "Counter-Enlightenment" was slow to enter general usage. It was first mentioned briefly in English in <a href="William_Barrett_(philosopher)" title="William Barrett (philosopher)">William Barrett</a>'s 1949 article "Art, Aristocracy and Reason" in <i><a href="Partisan_Review" title="Partisan Review">Partisan Review</a>.</i> He used the term again in his 1958 book on existentialism, <i>Irrational Man;</i> however, his comment on Enlightenment criticism was very limited.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Germany, the expression "Gegen-Aufklärung" has a longer history. It was probably coined by <a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> in "Nachgelassene Fragmente" in 1877.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Lewis_White_Beck" title="Lewis White Beck">Lewis White Beck</a> used this term in his <i>Early German Philosophy</i> (1969), a book about Counter-Enlightenment in Germany. Beck claims that there is a counter-movement arising in Germany in reaction to <a href="Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick II</a>'s secular authoritarian state. On the other hand, <a href="Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a> and his fellow philosophers believe that a more organic conception of social and political life, a more vitalistic view of nature, and an appreciation for beauty and the spiritual life of man have been neglected by the eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isaiah_Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</h3></div>

<p><a href="Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> established this term's place in the <a href="History_of_ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ideas">history of ideas</a>. He used it to refer to a movement that arose primarily in late 18th- and early 19th-century Germany against the <a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, <a href="Universalism" title="Universalism">universalism</a> and <a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> that are commonly associated with the Enlightenment. Berlin's essay "The Counter-Enlightenment" was first published in 1973, and later reprinted in a collection of his works, <i>Against the Current</i>, in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term has been more widely used since.

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<p>Berlin argues that, while there were opponents of the Enlightenment outside of Germany (e.g. <a href="Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a>) and before the 1770s (e.g. <a href="Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a>), Counter-Enlightenment thought did not take hold until the Germans "rebelled against the dead hand of France in the realms of culture, art and philosophy, and avenged themselves by launching the great counter-attack against the Enlightenment." This German reaction to the imperialistic universalism of the French Enlightenment and Revolution, which had been forced on them first by the francophile <a href="Frederick_II_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick II of Prussia">Frederick II of Prussia</a>, then by the armies of Revolutionary France and finally by <a href="Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, was crucial to the shift of consciousness that occurred in Europe at this time, leading eventually to <a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>. The consequence of this revolt against the Enlightenment was <a href="Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralism</a>. The opponents to the Enlightenment played a more crucial role than its proponents, some of whom were <a href="Monists" class="mw-redirect" title="Monists">monists</a>, whose political, intellectual and ideological offspring have been <i><a href="Terreur" class="mw-redirect" title="Terreur">terreur</a></i> and <a href="Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Darrin_McMahon">Darrin McMahon</h3></div>

<p>In his book <i><a href="Enemies_of_the_Enlightenment" title="Enemies of the Enlightenment">Enemies of the Enlightenment</a></i> (2001), historian <a href="Darrin_McMahon" title="Darrin McMahon">Darrin McMahon</a> extends the Counter-Enlightenment back to pre-Revolutionary France and down to the level of "<a href="Grub_Street" title="Grub Street">Grub Street</a>". McMahon focuses on the early opponents to the Enlightenment in France, unearthing a long-forgotten "<a href="Grub_Street" title="Grub Street">Grub Street</a>" literature in the late 18th and early 19th centuries aimed at the <i><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophes</a></i>. He delves into the obscure world of the "low Counter-Enlightenment" that attacked the <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">encyclopédistes</a></i> and fought to prevent the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas in the second half of the century. Many people from earlier times attacked the Enlightenment for undermining religion and the social and political order. It later became a major theme of conservative criticism of the Enlightenment. After the French Revolution, it appeared to vindicate the warnings of the <i><a href="Antiphilosophy" title="Antiphilosophy">anti-philosophes</a></i> in the decades prior to 1789.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graeme_Garrard">Graeme Garrard</h3></div>

<p><a href="Cardiff_University" title="Cardiff University">Cardiff University</a> professor <a href="Graeme_Garrard" title="Graeme Garrard">Graeme Garrard</a> claims that historian <a href="William_Everdell" title="William Everdell">William R. Everdell</a> was the first to situate Rousseau as the "founder of the Counter-Enlightenment" in his 1971 dissertation and in his 1987 book, <i>Christian Apologetics in France, 1730–1790: The Roots of Romantic Religion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 1996 article, "the Origin of the Counter-Enlightenment: Rousseau and the New Religion of Sincerity", in the <i><a href="American_Political_Science_Review" title="American Political Science Review">American Political Science Review</a></i> (Vol. 90, No. 2), Arthur M. Melzer corroborates Everdell's view in placing the origin of the Counter-Enlightenment in the religious writings of <a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, further showing Rousseau as the man who fired the first shot in the war between the Enlightenment and its opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Graeme_Garrard" title="Graeme Garrard">Graeme Garrard</a> follows Melzer in his "Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment" (2003). This contradicts Berlin's depiction of Rousseau as a <i><a href="Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">philosophe</a></i> (albeit an erratic one) who shared the basic beliefs of his Enlightenment contemporaries. But similar to McMahon, Garrard traces the beginning of Counter-Enlightenment thought back to France and prior to the German <i><a href="Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i> movement of the 1770s. Garrard's book <i>Counter-Enlightenments</i> (2006) broadens the term even further, arguing against Berlin that there was no single "movement" called "The Counter-Enlightenment". Rather, there have been many Counter-Enlightenments, from the middle of the 18th century to the 20th century among critical theorists, postmodernists and feminists. The Enlightenment has opponents on all points of its ideological compass, from the far left to the far right, and all points in between. Each of the Enlightenment's challengers depicted it as they saw it or wanted others to see it, resulting in a vast range of portraits, many of which are not only different but incompatible.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="James_Schmidt">James Schmidt</h3></div>

<p>The idea of Counter-Enlightenment has evolved in the following years. The historian James Schmidt questioned the idea of "Enlightenment" and therefore of the existence of a movement opposing it. As the conception of "Enlightenment" has become more complex and difficult to maintain, so has the idea of the "Counter-Enlightenment". Advances in Enlightenment scholarship in the last quarter-century have challenged the stereotypical view of the 18th century as an "<a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Reason</a>", leading Schmidt to speculate on whether the Enlightenment might not actually be a creation of its opponents, but the other way round. The fact that the term "Enlightenment" was first used in 1894 in English to refer to a historical period supports the argument that it was a late construction projected back onto the 18th century.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_French_Revolution">The French Revolution</h2></div>

<p>By the mid-1790s, the <a href="Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> during the French Revolution fueled a major reaction against the Enlightenment. Many leaders of the French Revolution and their supporters made <a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, as well as <a href="Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a>'s ideas of reason, <a href="Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>, anti-clericalism, and emancipation, central themes to their movement. It led to an unavoidable backlash to the Enlightenment as there were people opposed to the revolution. Many counter-revolutionary writers, such as <a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, <a href="Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a> and <a href="Augustin_Barruel" title="Augustin Barruel">Augustin Barruel</a>, asserted an intrinsic link between the Enlightenment and the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They blamed the Enlightenment for undermining traditional beliefs that sustained the <i><a href="Ancien_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien regime">ancien regime</a></i>. As the Revolution became increasingly bloody, the idea of "Enlightenment" was discredited, too. Hence, the French Revolution and its aftermath have contributed to the development of Counter-Enlightenment thought.

</p><p><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> was among the first of the Revolution's opponents to relate the <i>philosophes</i> to the instability in France in the 1790s. His <i><a href="Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> (1790) identifies the Enlightenment as the principal cause of the French revolution. In Burke's opinion, the <i>philosophes</i> provided the revolutionary leaders with the theories on which their political schemes were based.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Augustin_Barruel" title="Augustin Barruel">Augustin Barruel</a>'s Counter-Enlightenment ideas were well developed before the revolution. He worked as an editor for the anti-<i>philosophes</i> literary journal, <i><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_litt%C3%A9raire" class="extiw external" title="fr:L'Année littéraire">L'Année Littéraire</a></i>. Barruel argues in his <i><a href="Memoirs_Illustrating_the_History_of_Jacobinism" title="Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism">Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism</a></i> (1797) that the Revolution was the consequence of a conspiracy of <i>philosophes</i> and freemasons.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In <i><a href="Considerations_on_France" title="Considerations on France">Considerations on France</a></i> (1797), <a href="Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a> interprets the Revolution as divine punishment for the sins of the Enlightenment. According to him, "the revolutionary storm is an overwhelming force of nature unleashed on Europe by God that mocked human pretensions."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanticism">Romanticism</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div>

<p>In the 1770s, the "<i><a href="Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i>" movement started in Germany. It questioned some key assumptions and implications of the <i><a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Aufklärung</a></i> and the term "<a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>" was first coined. Many early Romantic writers such as <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a>, <a href="Novalis" title="Novalis">Friedrich von Hardenberg</a> (Novalis) and <a href="Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> inherited the Counter-Revolutionary antipathy towards the <i>philosophes</i>. All three directly blamed the <i>philosophes</i> in France and the <i><a href="Aufkl%C3%A4rer" class="mw-redirect" title="Aufklärer">Aufklärer</a></i> in Germany for devaluing beauty, spirit and history in favour of a view of man as a soulless machine and a view of the universe as a meaningless, disenchanted void lacking richness and beauty. One particular concern to early Romantic writers was the allegedly anti-religious nature of the Enlightenment since the <i>philosophes</i> and <i>Aufklärer</i> were generally <a href="Deism" title="Deism">deists</a>, opposed to <a href="Revealed_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Revealed religion">revealed religion</a>. Some historians, such as <a href="Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Hamann</a>, nevertheless contend that this view of the Enlightenment as an age hostile to religion is common ground between these Romantic writers and many of their conservative Counter-Revolutionary predecessors. However, not many have commented on the Enlightenment, except for Chateaubriand, Novalis, and Coleridge, since the term itself did not exist at the time and most of their contemporaries ignored it.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The historian <a href="Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Jacques Barzun</a> argues that Romanticism has its roots in the Enlightenment. It was not anti-rational, but rather balanced rationality against the competing claims of intuition and the sense of justice. This view is expressed in Goya's <i>Sleep of Reason</i>, in which the nightmarish owl offers the dozing social critic of <i><a href="Los_Caprichos" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Caprichos">Los Caprichos</a></i> a piece of drawing chalk. Even the rational critic is inspired by irrational dream-content under the gaze of the sharp-eyed lynx.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall Brown makes much the same argument as Barzun in <i>Romanticism and Enlightenment</i>, questioning the stark opposition between these two periods.

</p><p>By the middle of the 19th century, the memory of the French Revolution was fading and so was the influence of Romanticism. In this optimistic age of science and industry, there were few critics of the Enlightenment, and few explicit defenders. <a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> is a notable and highly influential exception. After an initial defence of the Enlightenment in his so-called "middle period" (late 1870s to early 1880s), Nietzsche turned vehemently against it.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Totalitarianism_and_Fascism">Totalitarianism and Fascism</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Totalitarianism_as_a_product_of_the_Enlightenment">Totalitarianism as a product of the Enlightenment</h3></div>

<p>After <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the Enlightenment re-emerged as a key organizing concept in social and political thought and the <a href="History_of_ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ideas">history of ideas</a>. The Counter-Enlightenment literature blaming the 18th-century <a href="Age_of_Reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Reason">Age of Reason</a> for both 18th and 20th-century <a href="Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a> also resurged. The <i>locus classicus</i> of this view is <a href="Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a> and <a href="Theodor_Adorno" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor Adorno">Theodor Adorno</a>'s <i><a href="Dialectic_of_Enlightenment" title="Dialectic of Enlightenment">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a></i> (1947), which traces the degeneration of the general concept of enlightenment from <a href="Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> (epitomized by the cunning "bourgeois" hero <a href="Odysseus" title="Odysseus">Odysseus</a>) to 20th-century <a href="Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>.

</p><p>The authors take "enlightenment" as their target including its 18th-century form – which we now call "The Enlightenment". They claim it is epitomized by the <a href="Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a>. However, there were philosophers rejecting Adorno and Horkheimer's claim that Sade's <a href="Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">moral skepticism</a> is actually coherent, or that it reflects Enlightenment thought.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nazism_and_Fascism_as_products_of_the_Counter-Enlightenment">Nazism and Fascism as products of the Counter-Enlightenment</h3></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="border: 4px double #000000; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; font-size:200%; font-weight:medium;"><a href="Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding: 0.8em 0 1.3em;"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Actual_idealism" title="Actual idealism">Actual idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-intellectualism#Fascism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Bourgeois_nation" title="Bourgeois nation">Anti-materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pacifism#Criticism" title="Pacifism">Anti-pacifism</a></li>

<li><a href="Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_collaboration#Fascist_support" title="Class collaboration">Class collaboration</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporatism#Fascist_corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Proprietary_Corporation" title="Proprietary Corporation">Proprietary Corporation</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Nazism_and_Fascism_as_products_of_the_Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li>

<li><a href="Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Heroic_capitalism" title="Heroic capitalism">Heroic capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Heroic_realism" title="Heroic realism">Heroic realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hero" title="Hero">Heroism</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_interventionism" title="Social interventionism">Social</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_rationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of rationalism">Irrationalism</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Machismo" title="Machismo">Machismo</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Model_of_masculinity_under_fascist_Italy" title="Model of masculinity under fascist Italy">Masculinity</a></li>

<li><a href="Militarism" title="Militarism">Militarism</a></li>

<li><a href="National_syndicalism" title="National syndicalism">National syndicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Integral_nationalism" title="Integral nationalism">Integral</a></li>

<li><a href="Palingenetic_ultranationalism" title="Palingenetic ultranationalism">Palingenetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultra</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="One-party_state" title="One-party state">One-party state</a></li>

<li><a href="Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual war</a></li>

<li><a href="Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li>

<li><a href="Proletarian_nation" title="Proletarian nation">Proletarian nation</a></li>

<li><a href="Propaganda_in_Fascist_Italy" title="Propaganda in Fascist Italy">Propaganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactionary_modernism" title="Reactionary modernism">Reactionary modernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_Darwinism#Nazism,_eugenics,_fascism,_imperialism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Spazio_vitale" title="Spazio vitale">Spazio vitale</a></i></li>

<li><a href="State_capitalism#By_Italian_Fascists" title="State capitalism">State capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Supercapitalism" title="Supercapitalism">Supercapitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Syncretic_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretism</a></li>

<li><a href="Third_Position" title="Third Position">Third Position</a></li>

<li><a href="Totalitarianism#Early_usages" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Definitions_of_fascism" title="Definitions of fascism">Definitions</a></li>

<li><a href="Economics_of_fascism" title="Economics of fascism">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascism_and_ideology" title="Fascism and ideology">Ideology</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascist_martyrs" title="Fascist martyrs">Martyrs</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_fascist_movements" title="List of fascist movements">Movements</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascist_mysticism" title="Fascist mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascist_symbolism" title="Fascist symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani#Iran,_Italy,_Germany_and_Saudi_Arabia" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">al-Gaylani</a></li>

<li><a href="Adrien_Arcand" title="Adrien Arcand">Arcand</a></li>

<li><a href="Sadao_Araki" title="Sadao Araki">Araki</a></li>

<li><a href="Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Balbo</a></li>

<li><a href="Stepan_Bandera" title="Stepan Bandera">Bandera</a></li>

<li><a href="Zolt%C3%A1n_B%C3%B6sz%C3%B6rm%C3%A9ny" title="Zoltán Böszörmény">Böszörmény</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Bottai" title="Giuseppe Bottai">Bottai</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Blythe" title="Ernest Blythe">Blythe</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcel_Bucard" title="Marcel Bucard">Bucard</a></li>

<li><a href="Galeazzo_Ciano" title="Galeazzo Ciano">Ciano</a></li>

<li><a href="Corneliu_Zelea_Codreanu" title="Corneliu Zelea Codreanu">Codreanu</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Darnand</a></li>

<li><a href="L%C3%A9on_Degrelle" title="Léon Degrelle">Degrelle</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_D%C3%A9roul%C3%A8de" title="Paul Déroulède">Déroulède</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Doriot" title="Jacques Doriot">Doriot</a></li>

<li><a href="Per_Engdahl" title="Per Engdahl">Engdahl</a></li>

<li><a href="Luigi_Federzoni" title="Luigi Federzoni">Federzoni</a></li>

<li><a href="Luis_A._Flores" title="Luis A. Flores">Flores</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li>

<li><a href="Mid'hat_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Mid'hat Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrej_Hlinka" title="Andrej Hlinka">Hlinka</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Hoornaert" title="Paul Hoornaert">Hoornaert</a></li>

<li><a href="Dimitrije_Ljoti%C4%87" title="Dimitrije Ljotić">Ljotić</a></li>

<li><a href="Jorge_Gonz%C3%A1lez_von_Mar%C3%A9es" title="Jorge González von Marées">von Marées</a></li>

<li><a href="Davud_Monshizadeh" title="Davud Monshizadeh">Monshizadeh</a></li>

<li><a href="Oswald_Mosley" title="Oswald Mosley">Mosley</a></li>

<li><a href="Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li>

<li><a href="Seig%C5%8D_Nakano" title="Seigō Nakano">Nakano</a></li>

<li><a href="Eoin_O'Duffy" title="Eoin O'Duffy">O'Duffy</a></li>

<li><a href="Vidkun_Quisling" title="Vidkun Quisling">Quisling</a></li>

<li><a href="Ante_Paveli%C4%87" title="Ante Pavelić">Pavelić</a></li>

<li><a href="Alessandro_Pavolini" title="Alessandro Pavolini">Pavolini</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Dudley_Pelley" title="William Dudley Pelley">Pelley</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_Rol%C3%A3o_Preto" title="Francisco Rolão Preto">Preto</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_Primo_de_Rivera" title="José Antonio Primo de Rivera">Primo de Rivera</a></li>

<li><a href="Konstantin_Rodzaevsky" title="Konstantin Rodzaevsky">Rodzaevsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoun_Saadeh" title="Antoun Saadeh">Saadeh</a></li>

<li><a href="Pl%C3%ADnio_Salgado" title="Plínio Salgado">Salgado</a></li>

<li><a href="Achille_Starace" title="Achille Starace">Starace</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_R%C3%BCdiger_Starhemberg" title="Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg">Starhemberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Gregor_Strasser" title="Gregor Strasser">Strasser (Gregor)</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Strasser" title="Otto Strasser">Strasser (Otto)</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferenc_Sz%C3%A1lasi" title="Ferenc Szálasi">Szálasi</a></li>

<li><a href="Alparslan_T%C3%BCrke%C5%9F" title="Alparslan Türkeş">Türkeş</a></li>

<li><a href="Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Vallat</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges_Valois" title="Georges Valois">Valois</a></li>

<li><a href="Joris_Van_Severen" title="Joris Van Severen">Van Severen</a></li>

<li><a href="Arnold_Wilson" title="Arnold Wilson">Wilson</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Abba_Ahimeir" title="Abba Ahimeir">Ahimeir</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Arthuys#Fascist_leader" title="Jacques Arthuys">Arthuys</a></li>

<li><a href="Maurice_Bard%C3%A8che" title="Maurice Bardèche">Bardèche</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_B%C3%A9raud" title="Henri Béraud">Béraud</a></li>

<li><a href="Traian_Br%C4%83ileanu" title="Traian Brăileanu">Brăileanu</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Brasillach" title="Robert Brasillach">Brasillach</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line#Antisemitism,_fascism_and_collaboration" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Céline</a></li>

<li><a href="Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li>

<li><a href="A._K._Chesterton" title="A. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li>

<li><a href="Guelfo_Civinini" title="Guelfo Civinini">Civinini</a></li>

<li><a href="Giulio_Cogni" title="Giulio Cogni">Cogni</a></li>

<li><a href="Seward_Collins" title="Seward Collins">Collins</a></li>

<li><a href="Enrico_Corradini" title="Enrico Corradini">Corradini</a></li>

<li><a href="Nichifor_Crainic" title="Nichifor Crainic">Crainic</a></li>

<li><a href="Benedetto_Croce#Relations_with_Italian_fascism" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li>

<li><a href="Salvator_Cupcea#Moldovan's_aide" title="Salvator Cupcea">Cupcea</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabriele_D'Annunzio" title="Gabriele D'Annunzio">D'Annunzio</a></li>

<li><a href="Elizabeth_Dilling" title="Elizabeth Dilling">Dilling</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Drieu_La_Rochelle" title="Pierre Drieu La Rochelle">Drieu La Rochelle</a></li>

<li><a href="Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li>

<li><a href="Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li>

<li><a href="Niccol%C3%B2_Giani" title="Niccolò Giani">Giani</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">de Gobineau</a></li>

<li><a href="Traian_Herseni#National_Legionary_doctrinaire" title="Traian Herseni">Herseni</a></li>

<li><a href="Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Ionescu</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Krannhals" title="Paul Krannhals">Krannhals</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges_Vacher_de_Lapouge" title="Georges Vacher de Lapouge">de Lapouge</a></li>

<li><a href="Wyndham_Lewis#Political_views" title="Wyndham Lewis">Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="Curzio_Malaparte" title="Curzio Malaparte">Malaparte</a></li>

<li><a href="Sabin_Manuil%C4%83" title="Sabin Manuilă">Manuilă</a></li>

<li><a href="Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti" title="Filippo Tommaso Marinetti">Marinetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Pierre_Maxence" title="Jean-Pierre Maxence">Maxence</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li>

<li><a href="Diana_Mosley" title="Diana Mosley">Mosley</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugo_Ojetti#Ojetti_and_fascism" title="Ugo Ojetti">Ojetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Sh%C5%ABmei_%C5%8Ckawa" title="Shūmei Ōkawa">Ōkawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Angelo_Oliviero_Olivetti" title="Angelo Oliviero Olivetti">Olivetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Paolo_Orano" title="Paolo Orano">Orano</a></li>

<li><a href="Leopoldo_Panero" title="Leopoldo Panero">Panero</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergio_Panunzio" title="Sergio Panunzio">Panunzio</a></li>

<li><a href="Luigi_Pirandello#Italy_under_the_Fascists" title="Luigi Pirandello">Pirandello</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Pitt-Rivers" title="George Pitt-Rivers">Pitt-Rivers</a></li>

<li><a href="Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Pound</a></li>

<li><a href="Ramiro_Ledesma_Ramos" title="Ramiro Ledesma Ramos">Ramos</a></li>

<li><a href="Lucien_Rebatet" title="Lucien Rebatet">Rebatet</a></li>

<li><a href="Arturo_Reghini" title="Arturo Reghini">Reghini</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Rosenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Izabela_Sadoveanu-Evan" title="Izabela Sadoveanu-Evan">Sadoveanu-Evan</a></li>

<li><a href="Saint-Loup_(writer)" title="Saint-Loup (writer)">Saint-Loup</a></li>

<li><a href="Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar#Fascism" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Savarkar</a></li>

<li><a href="Massimo_Scaligero" title="Massimo Scaligero">Scaligero</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Schwarz_(philosopher)" title="Hermann Schwarz (philosopher)">Schwarz</a></li>

<li><a href="Ardengo_Soffici#Later_life" title="Ardengo Soffici">Soffici</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugo_Spirito" title="Ugo Spirito">Spirito</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Streel" title="José Streel">Streel</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Raven_Thomson" title="Alexander Raven Thomson">Thomson</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Ungaretti#Hermeticism_and_fascism" title="Giuseppe Ungaretti">Ungaretti</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges_Valois" title="Georges Valois">Valois</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><i><a href="Il_trionfo_della_morte" title="Il trionfo della morte">Triumph of Death</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1894)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Flame_(novel)" title="The Flame (novel)">The Flame</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1900)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Will_to_Power_(manuscript)" title="The Will to Power (manuscript)">The Will to Power</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1901)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Reflections_on_Violence" title="Reflections on Violence">Reflections on Violence</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1908)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Fascio_Rivoluzionario_d'Azione_Internazionalista#Manifesto" title="Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista">Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione<br> Internazionalista</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1914)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Prussianism_and_Socialism" title="Prussianism and Socialism">Prussianism and Socialism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1919)</span></li>

<li>"<a href="Manifesto_of_Futurism" title="Manifesto of Futurism">Futurist Manifesto</a>" <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1919)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Fascist_Manifesto" title="Fascist Manifesto">Fascist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1919)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Das_Dritte_Reich" title="Das Dritte Reich">Das Dritte Reich</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1923)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1925)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Manifesto_of_the_Fascist_Intellectuals" title="Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals">Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1925)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Frederick_the_Second" title="Frederick the Second">Frederick the Second</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1927)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="My_Autobiography_(Mussolini_book)" title="My Autobiography (Mussolini book)">My Autobiography</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1928)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Myth_of_the_Twentieth_Century" title="The Myth of the Twentieth Century">The Myth of the Twentieth Century</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1930)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Outlaws_(novel)" title="The Outlaws (novel)">The Outlaws</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1930)</span></li>

<li>"<a href="The_Doctrine_of_Fascism" title="The Doctrine of Fascism">The Doctrine of Fascism</a>" <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1932)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Twenty-Six_Point_Program_of_the_Falange" title="Twenty-Six Point Program of the Falange">Twenty-Six Point Program of<br>the Falange</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1934)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Man%2C_the_Unknown" title="Man, the Unknown">Man, the Unknown</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1935)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="For_My_Legionaries" title="For My Legionaries">For My Legionaries</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1936)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Guide_to_Kulchur" title="Guide to Kulchur">Guide to Kulchur</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1938)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="A_Warning_to_the_Hindus" title="A Warning to the Hindus">A Warning to the Hindus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1939)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Gilles_(novel)" title="Gilles (novel)">Gilles</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1939)</span></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Arrow_Cross_Party" title="Arrow Cross Party">Arrow Cross Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Blackshirts" title="Blackshirts">Blackshirts</a></li>

<li><a href="Blueshirts" title="Blueshirts">Blueshirts</a></li>

<li><a href="Brazilian_Integralist_Action" title="Brazilian Integralist Action">Brazilian Integralist Action</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Democratic_Party_(2013)" title="British Democratic Party (2013)">British Democratic Party (2013)</a></li>

<li><a href="British_National_Party" title="British National Party">British National Party</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Union_of_Fascists" title="British Union of Fascists">British Union of Fascists</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stewards_(paramilitary_organisation)" title="Stewards (paramilitary organisation)">Stewards</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Union_of_Fascists" title="Canadian Union of Fascists">Canadian Union of Fascists</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Fasci_d'Azione_Rivoluzionaria" title="Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria">Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Fasci_Italiani_di_Combattimento" title="Fasci Italiani di Combattimento">Fasci Italiani di Combattimento</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Fatherland_Front_(Austria)" title="Fatherland Front (Austria)">Fatherland Front</a></li>

<li><a href="French_Popular_Party" title="French Popular Party">French Popular Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Futurist_Political_Party" title="Futurist Political Party">Futurist Political Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Iron_Guard" title="Iron Guard">Iron Guard</a></li>

<li><a href="Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Kataeb Party</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Kokumin_D%C5%8Dmei" title="Kokumin Dōmei">Kokumin Dōmei</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Lapua_Movement" title="Lapua Movement">Lapua Movement</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Mouvement_Franciste" title="Mouvement Franciste">Mouvement Franciste</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Nasjonal_Samling" title="Nasjonal Samling">Nasjonal Samling</a></i></li>

<li><a href="National_Christian_Party" title="National Christian Party">National Christian Party</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler_Youth" title="Hitler Youth">Hitler Youth</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Radical_Camp" title="National Radical Camp">National Radical Camp</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Social_Movement" title="National Social Movement">National Social Movement</a></li>

<li><i><a href="New_Party_(UK)" title="New Party (UK)">New Party</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Opera_Nazionale_Balilla" title="Opera Nazionale Balilla">Opera Nazionale Balilla</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Patriotic_People's_Movement" title="Patriotic People's Movement">Patriotic People's Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh">Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Ratniks" title="Ratniks">Ratniks</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Republican_Fascist_Party" title="Republican Fascist Party">Republican Fascist Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolutionary_Mexicanist_Action" title="Revolutionary Mexicanist Action">Revolutionary Mexicanist Action</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolutionary_Union_(Peru)" title="Revolutionary Union (Peru)">Revolutionary Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Rexist_Party" title="Rexist Party">Rexist Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Fascist_Party" title="Russian Fascist Party">Russian Fascist Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Silver_Legion_of_America" title="Silver Legion of America">Silver Legion of America</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Squadrismo" title="Squadrismo">Squadrismo</a></i></li>

<li><a href="School_of_Fascist_Mysticism" title="School of Fascist Mysticism">School of Fascist Mysticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Slovak_People's_Party" title="Slovak People's Party">Slovak People's Party</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Taisei_Yokusankai" class="mw-redirect" title="Taisei Yokusankai">Taisei Yokusankai</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="T%C5%8Dh%C5%8Dkai" title="Tōhōkai">Tōhōkai</a></i></li>

<li><a href="UR_Group" title="UR Group">UR Group</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Ustaše</a></i>

<ul><li><a href="Usta%C5%A1e_Youth" title="Ustaše Youth">Ustaše Youth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Verdinaso" title="Verdinaso">Verdinaso</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Vlajka" title="Vlajka">Vlajka</a></i></li>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><i><a href="Action_(newspaper)" title="Action (newspaper)">Action</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Ajan_Suunta" title="Ajan Suunta">Ajan Suunta</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="The_American_Review_(literary_journal)#Controversy_and_decline" title="The American Review (literary journal)">The American Review</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Der_Angriff" title="Der Angriff">Der Angriff</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Arriba_(newspaper)" title="Arriba (newspaper)">Arriba</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Blackshirt" title="The Blackshirt">The Blackshirt</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Buna_Vestire" title="Buna Vestire">Buna Vestire</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Critica_fascista" title="Critica fascista">Critica fascista</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Fashist" title="Fashist">Fashist</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="G%C3%A2ndirea" title="Gândirea">Gândirea</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Gringoire_(newspaper)" title="Gringoire (newspaper)">Gringoire</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Il_Popolo_d'Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Je_suis_partout" title="Je suis partout">Je suis partout</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="La_Conquista_del_Estado" title="La Conquista del Estado">La Conquista del Estado</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="L'Idea_Nazionale" title="L'Idea Nazionale">L'Idea Nazionale</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Lidel_(magazine)" title="Lidel (magazine)">Lidel</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="N%C3%A1stup" title="Nástup">Nástup</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Neues_Volk" title="Neues Volk">Neues Volk</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Nippon_Fujin" title="Nippon Fujin">Nippon Fujin</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="NS-Frauen-Warte" title="NS-Frauen-Warte">NS-Frauen-Warte</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Das_Schwarze_Korps" title="Das Schwarze Korps">Das Schwarze Korps</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Volk_en_Staat" title="Volk en Staat">Volk en Staat</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter" title="Völkischer Beobachter">Völkischer Beobachter</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a></li>

<li><a href="Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Beer Hall Putsch</a></li>

<li><a href="Gentile_Reform" title="Gentile Reform">Gentile Reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Aventine_Secession_(20th_century)" title="Aventine Secession (20th century)">Aventine Secession</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Italo-Senussi_War" title="Second Italo-Senussi War">Second Italo-Senussi War</a></li>

<li><a href="Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a></li>

<li><a href="November_1932_German_federal_election" title="November 1932 German federal election">German election of 1932</a></li>

<li><a href="Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Austrian_Civil_War" title="Austrian Civil War">Austrian Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Exhibition_of_the_Fascist_Revolution" title="Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution">Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="1934_Montreux_Fascist_conference" title="1934 Montreux Fascist conference">1934 Montreux Fascist conference</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li>

<li><a href="1935_Revolution_Day_Z%C3%B3calo_Battle" title="1935 Revolution Day Zócalo Battle">1935 Revolution Day Zócalo Battle</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>

<ul><li><a href="Unification_Decree_(Spain%2C_1937)" title="Unification Decree (Spain, 1937)">Unification Decree</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Cable_Street" title="Battle of Cable Street">Battle of Cable Street</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>

<ul><li><a href="Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li>

<li><a href="Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li>

<li><a href="Pact_of_Steel" title="Pact of Steel">Pact of Steel</a></li>

<li><a href="Peasant_March" title="Peasant March">Peasant March</a></li>

<li><a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>

<ul><li><a href="The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li>

<li><a href="Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Downfall in Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazi_Germany#Turning_point_and_collapse" title="Nazi Germany">Downfall in Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for<br>the Far East</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Balli_Komb%C3%ABtar#Ideology" title="Balli Kombëtar">Albanian</a></li>

<li>Argentine

<ul><li><a href="Nacionalismo" title="Nacionalismo">Nacionalismo</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthodox_Peronism" title="Orthodox Peronism">Orthodox Peronism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Austrofascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrofascism">Austrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Brazilian_Integralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazilian Integralism">Brazilian</a></li>

<li><a href="British_fascism" title="British fascism">British</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_fascism" title="Christian fascism">Christian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Christian_Identity" title="Christian Identity">Christian Identity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Clerical_fascism" title="Clerical fascism">Clerical</a></li>

<li><a href="Crypto-fascism" title="Crypto-fascism">Crypto-</a></li>

<li><a href="Croatian_socialism" title="Croatian socialism">Croatian socialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Falangism" title="Falangism">Falangism</a></li>

<li><a href="Francoist_Spain#Francoism" title="Francoist Spain">Francoism</a></li>

<li><a href="French_fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="French fascism">French</a>

<ul><li><a href="French_Popular_Party#Ideology_and_fascism_of_PPF" title="French Popular Party">Doriotism</a></li>

<li><a href="R%C3%A9volution_nationale" title="Révolution nationale">Pétainism</a></li>

<li><a href="Le_Faisceau#Valois's_version_of_fascism" title="Le Faisceau">Valoisism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li>

<li><a href="Arrow_Cross_Party#Ideology" title="Arrow Cross Party">Hungarism</a></li>

<li><a href="Iba%C3%B1ismo" title="Ibañismo">Ibañism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ilminism" title="Ilminism">Ilminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ailtir%C3%AD_na_hAis%C3%A9irghe#Ideology" title="Ailtirí na hAiséirghe">Irish</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamofascism" title="Islamofascism">Islamic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Italian_fascism" title="Italian fascism">Italian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intransigent_fascism" title="Intransigent fascism">Intransigent</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Japanese

<ul><li><a href="Emperor-system_fascism" title="Emperor-system fascism">Emperor-system</a></li>

<li><a href="Reform_bureaucrats" title="Reform bureaucrats">Reform bureaucratism</a></li>

<li><a href="Kokkashugi" title="Kokkashugi">Statism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sh%C5%8Dwa_Restoration" title="Shōwa Restoration">Restoration</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultranationalism_(Japan)" title="Ultranationalism (Japan)">Ultra-</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li>Jewish/Israeli

<ul><li><a href="Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Revisionist_Maximalism#Ideology" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Revisionist Maximalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Austrian_Nazism" title="Austrian Nazism">Austrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Esoteric_Nazism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esoteric Nazism">Esoteric</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_views_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Political views of Adolf Hitler">Hitlerism</a></li>

<li><a href="Strasserism" title="Strasserism">Strasserism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazism_in_Sweden#Ideology" title="Nazism in Sweden">Swedish</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Blue-and-Black_Movement#Ideology" title="Blue-and-Black Movement">Finnish</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Legionarism" title="Neo-Legionarism">Legionarism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nine_Lights_Doctrine" title="Nine Lights Doctrine">Pan-Turkic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rexist_Party#Ideology" title="Rexist Party">Rexism</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Romania_under_Fascism" title="Kingdom of Romania under Fascism">Romanian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Legionarism" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionarism">Legionarism</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="National_Legionary_State" title="National Legionary State">National Legionary State</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Crusade_of_Romanianism#Ideology" title="Crusade of Romanianism">Romanianism/Stelism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ruscism" title="Ruscism">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascist_syndicalism" title="Fascist syndicalism">Syndicalist</a></li>

<li><a href="Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party#Ideology" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Techno-fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Techno-fascism">Techno-</a></li>

<li><a href="Third_Position" title="Third Position">Third Position</a>

<ul><li><a href="National-anarchism" title="National-anarchism">National-anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Bolshevism" title="National Bolshevism">National Bolshevism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazi-Maoism" title="Nazi-Maoism">Nazi-Maoism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Far-right_politics_in_Ukraine" title="Far-right politics in Ukraine">Ukrainian</a></li>

<li><a href="Stepan_Bandera#Views" title="Stepan Bandera">Banderism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Right_Sector#Ideology" title="Right Sector">National Shevchenkoism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Fascism_in_Uruguay" title="Fascism in Uruguay">Uruguayan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fascism_in_Uruguay#Marzism" title="Fascism in Uruguay">Marzism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascism_in_Uruguay#Uruguayan_revisionism" title="Fascism in Uruguay">Revisionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sosism" title="Sosism">Sosism</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #000000;background:transparent;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By continent</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

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<p>Later, various historians and authors argued that Fascism was a product of the Counter-Enlightenment itself. For example, <a href="Ze'ev_Sternhell" class="mw-redirect" title="Ze'ev Sternhell">Ze'ev Sternhell</a> called Fascism "an exacerbated form of the tradition of counter-Enlightenment": with Fascism, "Europe created for the first time a set of political movements and regimes whose project was nothing but the destruction of Enlightenment culture."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar opinions were expressed by such historians as <a href="Georges_Bensoussan" title="Georges Bensoussan">Georges Bensoussan</a> and <a href="Enzo_Traverso" title="Enzo Traverso">Enzo Traverso</a>, who noted "Counter-Enlightenment tendencies, combined with industrial and technical progress, a state monopoly over violence, and the rationalisation of methods of domination" and "Counter-Enlightenment (Gegenaufklärung) and the cult of modern technology, a synthesis of Teutonic mythologies and biological nationalism" in Nazism, thus recognizing it as grounded on intellectual traditions of counter-Enlightenment, but mixing them with "instrumental reason" which allowed adopting "the methods of industrial production and scientific management were employed" for such irrational goals as racial extermination.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to these historians, various philosophers described Fascism as a "revolt against reason" and a force hostile to scientific objectivity and rational inqury, namely <a href="Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a>, <a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="Richard_Wolin" title="Richard Wolin">Richard Wolin</a> and <a href="Jason_Stanley" title="Jason Stanley">Jason Stanley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li>

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<li><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li>

<li><a href="Dark_Enlightenment" title="Dark Enlightenment">Dark Enlightenment</a> (Neo-reactionary movement)</li>

<li><a href="Darrin_McMahon" title="Darrin McMahon">Darrin McMahon</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Dialectic_of_Enlightenment" title="Dialectic of Enlightenment">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a></i></li>

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<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>

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<li><a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a></li>

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<li><a href="Pierre_Klossowski" title="Pierre Klossowski">Pierre Klossowski</a></li>

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<li><a href="Reactionary_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionary politics">Reactionary politics</a></li>

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<li><a href="Lebensphilosophie" title="Lebensphilosophie">Lebensphilosophie</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is difficult to label Carlyle's thought, but his famous concept of <a href="Great_man_theory" title="Great man theory">Hero-Worship</a> as well as his somewhat critical analysis of the French Revolution links him with the Counter-Enlightenment.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFBertland" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bertland, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/vico/">"Giambattista Vico (1668—1744)"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGarrard2006" class="citation book cs1">Garrard, Graeme (2006). <i>Counter-enlightenments : from the eighteenth century to the present</i>. Abingdon [England]: Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0203645669</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62895765">62895765</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aspects noted by Darrin M. McMahon, "The Counter-Enlightenment and the Low-Life of Literature in Pre-Revolutionary France" <i>Past and Present</i> No. 159 (May 1998:77–112) p. 79 note 7.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">listed by Henry Hardy in the second edition of Isaiah Berlin, <i>Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas</i> (Princeton University Press, 2013), p. xxv, note 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1877" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1877). <i>Werke: Kristische Gesamtausgabe</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 478.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130903045244/http://berlin.wolf.ox.ac.uk/published_works/ac/counter-enlightenment.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://berlin.wolf.ox.ac.uk/published_works/ac/counter-enlightenment.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-09-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-08-03</span></span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGarrard2003" class="citation cs2">Garrard, Graeme (2003), <i>Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the </i>Philosophes<i></i>, State University of New York Press, <q>To my knowledge, the first explicit identification of Rousseau as "founder of the "Counter-Enlightenment" appears in William Everdell's study of Christian apologetics in eighteenth-century France.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMelzer1996" class="citation journal cs1">Melzer, Arthur M. (1996). "The Origin of the Counter-Enlightenment: Rousseau and the New Religion of Sincerity". <i>The American Political Science Review</i>. <b>90</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">344–</span>360. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2082889">10.2307/2082889</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2082889">2082889</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146774142">146774142</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChurch,_Jeffrey2010" class="citation journal cs1">Church, Jeffrey (2010). "The Anti-Anti-Enlightenment Thinker". <i>The Review of Politics</i>. <b>72</b> (4). Cambridge University Press: <span class="nowrap">731–</span>733. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034670510000689">10.1017/S0034670510000689</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJosephson-Storm2017" class="citation book cs1">Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ"><i>The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 58. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-40336-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGay1995" class="citation book cs1">Gay, Peter (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVsxAAAAQBAJ"><i>The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism</i></a>. Enlightenment an Interpretation. Vol. 1 (revised ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0393313026</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2004/february/bkpub1.asp">Linda Simon, <i>The Sleep of Reason</i></a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey Roche, "Much Sense the Starkest Madness: de Sade’s Moral Scepticism". <i>Angelaki</i> Volume 15, Issue 1 April 2010, pages 45 – 59.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TsNUDwAAQBAJ"><i>The New Faces of Fascism: Populism and the Far Right</i></a>. Verso Books. 29 January 2019. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78873-049-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NMnjBOfUTMkC"><i>European Pack for Visiting Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum: Guidelines for Teachers and Educators</i></a>. Council of Europe. January 2010. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-92-871-6794-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jmeBDwAAQBAJ"><i>The New Faces of Fascism: Populism and the Far Right</i></a>. Verso Books. 29 January 2019. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78873-046-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0TcxEQAAQBAJ"><i>Frege and Fascism</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. 12 December 2024. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-040-27116-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young, B. W. (2018). "The Counter-Enlightenments of Thomas Carlyle". In Kerry, Paul E.; Pionke, Albert D.; Dent, Megan (eds.) <i>Thomas Carlyle and the Idea of Influence</i>. Madison and Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 9781683930662.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun, Jacques</a>. 1961. <i>Classic, Romantic, and Modern</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780226038520</bdi>.</li>

<li><a href="Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin, Isaiah</a>, "The Counter-Enlightenment" in <i>The Proper Study of Mankind: An Anthology of Essays</i>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-374-52717-2</bdi>.</li>

<li>Berlin, Isaiah, <i><a href="Three_Critics_of_the_Enlightenment%3A_Vico%2C_Hamann%2C_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder">Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder</a></i>. (<a href="Henry_Hardy" title="Henry Hardy">Henry Hardy</a>, editor). Princeton University Press, 2003</li>

<li><a href="William_Everdell" title="William Everdell">Everdell, William R.</a> <i>Christian Apologetics in France, 1730–1790: The Roots of Romantic Religion.</i> Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987.</li>

<li>Everdell, William R. “Complots, Côteries, Conspirations: L’origine de la ‘thèse Barruel’ dans le roman apologétique” (7/6/89) in L’Image de la Révolution française: Communications présentées lors du Congrès Mondial..., vol III, Paris, 1989. Actes du Congrès mondial, “L’Image de la Révolution francaise!, 6-12 juillet, 1989, Pergamon press, p. 1881-1885</li>

<li>Everdell, William R. <i>The Evangelical Counter-Enlightenment: From Ecstasy to Fundamentalism in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam in the 18th Century</i>. New York: Springer, 2021. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-030-69761-7</bdi></li>

<li>Garrard, Graeme, <i>Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes (2003) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7914-5604-8</bdi></i></li>

<li>Garrard, Graeme, <i>Counter-Enlightenments: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present</i> (2006) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-415-18725-7</bdi></li>

<li>Garrard, Graeme, "Isaiah Berlin's Counter-Enlightenment" in <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>, ed. Joseph Mali and <a href="Robert_Wokler" title="Robert Wokler">Robert Wokler</a> (2003), <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-87169-935-4</bdi></li>

<li>Garrard, Graeme, "The War Against the Enlightenment", <i>European Journal of Political Theory</i>, 10 (2011): 277–86.</li>

<li>Garrard, Graeme, "Tilting at Counter-Enlightenment Windmills", <i>Eighteenth-Century Studies</i>, 49/ (2015): 77–82.</li>

<li><a href="%C3%89ric_Humbertclaude" title="Éric Humbertclaude">Humbertclaude, Éric</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ7DwHe-HLMC&dq=hultazob&pg=PA75">Récréations de Hultazob</a></i>. Paris: L'Harmattan 2010, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-2-296-12546-9</bdi> (sur Melech August Hultazob, médecin-charlatan des Lumières Allemandes assassiné en 1743)</li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel, Jonathan</a>, <i>Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man, 1670-1752</i>, Oxford University Press, 2006. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-954152-2</bdi>.</li>

<li>Jung, Theo, "Multiple Counter-Enlightenments: The Genealogy of a Polemics from the Eighteenth Century to the Present", in: Martin L. Davies (ed.), Thinking about the Enlightenment: Modernity and Its Ramifications, Milton Park / New York 2016, 209-226 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/data/14105">PDF</a>).</li>

<li><a href="Ulrich_L._Lehner" title="Ulrich L. Lehner">Lehner, Ulrich L.</a> <i>The Catholic Enlightenment</i> (2016)</li>

<li><a href="Ulrich_L._Lehner" title="Ulrich L. Lehner">Lehner, Ulrich L.</a> <i>Women, Enlightenment and Catholicism</i> (2017)</li>

<li>Masseau, Didier, <i>Les ennemis des philosophes:. l’antiphilosophie au temps des Lumières</i>, Paris: Albin Michel, 2000.</li>

<li><a href="Darrin_McMahon" title="Darrin McMahon">McMahon, Darrin M.</a>, <i><a href="Enemies_of_the_Enlightenment" title="Enemies of the Enlightenment">Enemies of the Enlightenment: The French Counter-Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity</a></i> details the reaction to Voltaire and the Enlightenment in European intellectual history from 1750 to 1830.</li>

<li><a href="Robert_E._Norton" title="Robert E. Norton">Norton, Robert E.</a> "The Myth of the Counter-Enlightenment," <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>, 68 (2007): 635–58.</li>

<li>Schmidt, James, <i>What Enlightenment Project?</i>, Political Theory, 28/6 (2000), pp. 734–57.</li>

<li>Schmidt, James, <i>Inventing the Enlightenment: Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians and the Oxford English Dictionary</i>, Journal of the History of Ideas, 64/3 (2003), pp. 421–43.</li>

<li><a href="Richard_Wolin" title="Richard Wolin">Wolin, Richard</a>, <i>The Seduction of Unreason: The Intellectual Romance with Fascism from Nietzsche to Postmodernism</i> (Princeton University Press) 2004, sets out to trace "the uncanny affinities between the Counter-Enlightenment and postmodernism."</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Counter-Enlightenment" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaGenText/tei/DicHist2.xml;chunk.id=dv2-11;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv2-11;brand=default">Isaiah Berlin,"The Counter-Enlightenment"</a>, in <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i> (1973)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050127081508/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2279/is_n159/ai_21029551">Darrin M. McMahon, "The counter-Enlightenment and the low-life of literature in pre-Revolutionary France,"</a> from <i>Past & Present,</i> May 1998</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Joseph_de_Maistre47" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Joseph_de_Maistre47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="Considerations_on_France" title="Considerations on France">Considerations on France</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1796)</span></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="St_Petersburg_Dialogues" title="St Petersburg Dialogues">St Petersburg Dialogues</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1821)</span></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="An_Examination_of_the_Philosophy_of_Bacon" title="An Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon">An Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1836)</span></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Clerical_philosophers" title="Clerical philosophers">Clerical philosophy</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Monarchism_in_France" title="Monarchism in France">French royalism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Neo-ultramontanism" title="Neo-ultramontanism">Neo-ultramontanism</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Baronne_Almaury_de_Maistre" title="Baronne Almaury de Maistre">Baronne Almaury de Maistre</a> (niece)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Rodolphe_de_Maistre" title="Rodolphe de Maistre">Rodolphe de Maistre</a> (son)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Xavier_de_Maistre" title="Xavier de Maistre">Xavier de Maistre</a> (brother)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Analysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Carolina_Armenteros" title="Carolina Armenteros">Carolina Armenteros</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Richard_Lebrun" title="Richard Lebrun">Richard Lebrun</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Larry_Siedentop" title="Larry Siedentop">Larry Siedentop</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="The_Hedgehog_and_the_Fox" title="The Hedgehog and the Fox">The Hedgehog and the Fox</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1953)</span></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="Enemies_of_the_Enlightenment" title="Enemies of the Enlightenment">Enemies of the Enlightenment</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2001)</span></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="Joseph_de_Maistre's_Life%2C_Thought%2C_and_Influence" title="Joseph de Maistre's Life, Thought, and Influence">Joseph de Maistre's Life, Thought, and Influence</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2001)</span></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="The_Headless_Republic" title="The Headless Republic">The Headless Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2005)</span></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="Les_antimodernes" title="Les antimodernes">Les antimodernes</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2005)</span></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="The_Reactionary_Mind" title="The Reactionary Mind">The Reactionary Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2011)</span></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romanticism556" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Romanticism556" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Denmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">England (literature)</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">France</a> <a href="19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">(literature)</a></li>

<li><a href="German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Scotland</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li>

<li><a href="Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li>

<li><a href="Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li>

<li><a href="D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li>

<li><a href="German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li>

<li><a href="Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li>

<li><a href="Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li>

<ul><li><i><a href="Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li>

<li><a href="Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li>

<li><a href="Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li>

<li><a href="Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li>

<li><a href="Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li>

<li><a href="Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></li>

<li><a href="White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Romanticism#Literature" title="Romanticism">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li>

<li><a href="Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li>

<li><a href="Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li>

<li><a href="Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li>

<li><a href="Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li>

<li><a href="Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es%2C_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfredo_d'Escragnolle_Taunay%2C_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li>

<li><a href="Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li>

<li><a href="Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li>

<li><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li>

<li><a href="Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li>

<li><a href="Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li>

<li><a href="Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li>

<li><a href="G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li>

<li><a href="Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li>

<li><a href="Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li>

<li><a href="Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li>

<li><a href="Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li>

<li><a href="Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li>

<li><a href="E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li>

<li><a href="Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li>

<li><a href="Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great<br>Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li>

<li><a href="Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li>

<li><a href="Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li>

<li><a href="Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li>

<li><a href="Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li>

<li><a href="John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li>

<li><a href="Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li>

<li><a href="Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li>

<li><a href="Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li>

<li><a href="Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li>

<li><a href="Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li>

<li><a href="Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li>

<li><a href="Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li>

<li><a href="Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li>

<li><a href="Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li>

<li><a href="Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mihail_Kog%C4%83lniceanu" title="Mihail Kogălniceanu">Mihail Kogălniceanu</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantin_Negruzzi" title="Constantin Negruzzi">Constantin Negruzzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasile_Alecsandri" title="Vasile Alecsandri">Vasile Alecsandri</a></li>

<li><a href="Dimitrie_Bolintineanu" title="Dimitrie Bolintineanu">Dimitrie Bolintineanu</a></li>

<li><a href="Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Mihai Eminescu</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Co%C8%99buc" title="George Coșbuc">George Coșbuc</a></li>

<li><a href="Octavian_Goga" title="Octavian Goga">Octavian Goga</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexandru_Macedonski" title="Alexandru Macedonski">Alexandru Macedonski</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbu_%C8%98tef%C4%83nescu_Delavrancea" title="Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea">Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li>

<li><a href="Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li>

<li><a href="Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li>

<li><a href="Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li>

<li><a href="Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li>

<li><a href="Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li>

<li><a href="Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li>

<li><a href="Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li>

<li><a href="Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li>

<li><a href="Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li>

<li><a href="Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li>

<li><a href="Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li>

<li><a href="Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li>

<li><a href="Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li>

<li><a href="N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li>

<li><a href="Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li>

<li><a href="Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li>

<li><a href="Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li>

<li><a href="Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li>

<li><a href="Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li>

<li><a href="Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li>

<li><a href="France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li>

<li><a href="Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li>

<li><a href="Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li>

<li><a href="Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li>

<li><a href="Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li>

<li><a href="Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li>

<li><a href="Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li>

<li><a href="Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li>

<li><a href="Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li>

<li><a href="Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li>

<li><a href="Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li>

<li><a href="Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li>

<li><a href="Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li>

<li><a href="Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li>

<li><a href="Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li>

<li><a href="Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li>

<li><a href="Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li>

<li><a href="Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li>

<li><a href="Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Great Britain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustav_Holst" title="Gustav Holst">Holst</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_Vaughan_Williams" title="Ralph Vaughan Williams">Vaughan Williams</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li>

<li><a href="Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li>

<li><a href="Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li>

<li><a href="Ottorino_Respighi" title="Ottorino Respighi">Respighi</a></li>

<li><a href="Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li>

<li><a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li>

<li><a href="Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li>

<li><a href="Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li>

<li><a href="Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li>

<li><a href="Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li>

<li><a href="Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li>

<li><a href="Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li>

<li><a href="Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li>

<li><a href="Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li>

<li><a href="Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="George_Whitefield_Chadwick" title="George Whitefield Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li>

<li><a href="Amy_Beach" title="Amy Beach">Beach</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Foote" title="Arthur Foote">Foote</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Foster" title="Stephen Foster">Foster</a></li>

<li><a href="Scott_Joplin" title="Scott Joplin">Joplin</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_MacDowell" title="Edward MacDowell">MacDowell</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Philip_Sousa" title="John Philip Sousa">Sousa</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li>

<li><a href="C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li>

<li><a href="Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li>

<li><a href="F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li>

<li><a href="Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li>

<li><a href="Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li>

<li><a href="Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li>

<li><a href="Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li>

<li><a href="August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li>

<li><a href="Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li>

<li><a href="Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li>

<li><a href="Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li>

<li><a href="Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li>

<li><a href="David_d'Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li>

<li><a href="Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li>

<li><a href="Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li>

<li><a href="Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li>

<li><a href="Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li>

<li><a href="Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li>

<li><a href="Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li>

<li><a href="Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li>

<li><a href="Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li>

<li><a href="Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li>

<li><a href="Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre%2C_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li>

<li><a href="Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li>

<li><a href="Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li>

<li><a href="Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li>

<li><a href="Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li>

<li><a href="Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li>

<li><a href="J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li>

<li><a href="M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li>

<li><a href="Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li>

<li><a href="T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li>

<li><a href="Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li>

<li><a href="Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li>

<li><a href="Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coleridge's_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li>

<li><a href="German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li>

<li><a href="Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;">

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<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment295" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li>

<li><a href="Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>

<li><a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li>

<li><span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="Libert%C3%A9%2C_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9%2C_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li>

<li><i><a href="Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li>

<li><a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>

<li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li>

<li><a href="Universality_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li>

<li><a href="Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li>

<li><a href="Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li>

<li><a href="Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li>

<li><a href="Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Jean_le_Rond_d'Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d'Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Beaumarchais" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li>

<li><a href="Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li>

<li><a href="Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li>

<li><a href="Baron_d'Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li>

<li><a href="Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li>

<li><a href="Georges-Louis_Leclerc%2C_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li>

<li><a href="Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li>

<li><a href="Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li>

<li><a href="Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li>

<li><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li>

<li><a href="Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li>

<li><a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>

<li><a href="Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li>

<li><a href="Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li>

<li><a href="Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li>

<li><a href="Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li>

<li><a href="Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li>

<li><a href="Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li>

<li><a href="Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li>

<li><a href="Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li>

<li><a href="Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li>

<li><a href="Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li>

<li><a href="Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li>

<li><a href="Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li>

<li><a href="Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li>

<li><a href="Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li>

<li><a href="Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo%2C_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li>

<li><a href="Dimitrie_Cantemir" title="Dimitrie Cantemir">Cantemir</a></li>

<li><a href="Dinicu_Golescu" title="Dinicu Golescu">Golescu</a></li>

<li><a href="Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li>

<li><a href="Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li>

<li><a href="Ien%C4%83chi%C8%9B%C4%83_V%C4%83c%C4%83rescu" title="Ienăchiță Văcărescu">Văcărescu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li>

<li><a href="Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li>

<li><a href="Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li>

<li><a href="Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Burnett%2C_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li>

<li><a href="Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li>

<li><a href="Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li>

<li><a href="Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li>

<li><a href="Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;">

<div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b>Romanticism →</b></div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-08" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Counter-Enlightenment&oldid=1299459797">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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